Advanced Fluvial Geomorphology (Geol/Geog 621)

 Annotated Bibliography – Fall 2005

 

Drainage Networks

 

Knighton, D., 1998, Fluvial forms & processes: A new perspective: New York, Oxford University Press, Inc., 383 p.

 

Chapter 1 - Introduction (p. 1-8)

This chapter is an overview of the history of geomorphology and an introduction to what is to come in the remainder of the book.  Knighton starts by introducing the reader to streams and rivers in general by stating how they are important to our lives in both positive and negative ways.  There is a wide range of processes associated with rivers, from small to large scale, and the book focuses on these processes.  Knighton goes on to state several key areas of fluvial geomorphology and their history of study.  A fluvial system is considered an open system with free exchange of energy between it and the surrounding area.  At any given point this system is influenced by upstream, downstream, and environmental controls.  Knighton states that any changes within any of these controls can greatly affect fluvial stability.  In the past, geomorphology has concerned itself with long term conditions and affects; however, in recent years, there has been a shift towards more short term cause and effect.  Knighton points out two ways this new course of study has taken: empirical and theoretical.  Empirical is the collection of field data and the analysis thereof.  This approach is dominant in geomorphology and is largely inductive.  The theoretical approach relies more heavily on testing specific statements and constructing models to explain them.  Within this approach, there is a deterministic theory stating physical laws control all behavior.  There is also a probabilistic approach which is based on probability due to the randomness and complexity of nature.  With all the changes in geomorphology throughout the years, field data and the analysis thereof continue to remain the basis of study.

 

 

Knighton, D., 1998, Fluvial forms & processes: A new perspective: New York, Oxford University Press, Inc., 383 p.

 

Chapter 2 – Drainage Networks (p. 9-64)

Knighton’s description of drainage networks is detailed yet allows for new ideas and change within current scientific paradigm. The chapter details drainage network analysis from the following standpoints; discussion of drainage network composition and drainage density; hillslope processes including hillslope hydrology and water erosion; channel initiation by overland and subsurface flow; network evolution processes including evidence of, theoretical models, and modes. Additionally, hillslopes, networks and channels are discussed in terms of hillslope-basal stream interactions, networks, channels and their morphology and behavior. The chapter ends with a similar examination of networks, flows and the inner workings and theories revolving around them.

 

 

Hansen, M.C., 1995, The Teays River:  Ohio Div. of Geol. Survey:  Survey GeoFacts, No. 10
Online Linkage: http://www.dnr.state.oh.us/geosurvey/geo_fact/geo_f10.htm

This article briefly summarizes some of the attempts to discover and map the route of the ancient Teays River, which once drained most of the east-central

United States. It was destroyed by Pleistocene glaciers 2 million years ago, and, while some remnants of the river valley are visible by satellite, glacial processes

have covered some markings with five hundred feet of sediment.  As glacial movement and effects destroyed the Teays River, the modern Ohio drainage was formed.  Further glaciation has refined it to its current course.  Though the existence of the Teays River is accepted, there is much recent debate about its course 

through glaciated Ohio, where the remnants are covered and modified by glacial sediments and the erosive action of glaciers.  The article does, however, allude to the possibility of using bedrock-topography maps to discover clues to the path.

 

Catchment Processes

 

Knighton, D.,  1998, Fluvial Forms & Processes:  A new perspective: New York, Oxford University Press, Inc., 383 p.
 
Chapter 3 - Catchment Processes (p. 65-95)
This chapter begins with a broad description of, and variations within, a river catchment as a physical unit for hydrological studies.  The term "catchment" being the British variation of America's preferred phrase "drainage basin." Knighton indicates that a catchment is an open system subject to inputs, throughputs, and   outputs that transfer water and sediment.  Knighton then discusses each of the topics that impact flow in a catchment, including streamflow generation, streamflow 
output, catchment denudation, solute variability, and sediment yields and budgets.  Processes, models, and descriptions are offered for each subtopic.  Knighton emphasizes that while models are available and applied for many hydraulic systems and processes, natural rivers are highly variable in time and space.  Despite much effort and money to the contrary, some catchment aspects are still unpredictable, including the use of sediment yields as an indication of the rate of mechanical 
denudation of the fluvial system.

 

Clark, M. G., Ciolkkosz, E.J., 1988, Periglacial Geomorphology of the Appalachian Highlands and Interior Highlands South of the Glacial Border-A Review: Geomorphology, v. 1, p. 191-220.

 

This article researches the development of paleoperiglacial landform theory and how these features can be used as indicators to locate and reconstruct paleoclimatic frost environments. Clark and Ciolkkosz characterize periglacial environments as being: cold climatic regions with or without permafrost and their associated landforms elements, landforms and landscapes produced directly and indirectly through the process of strong frost action or intensive mass wasting and eolian activity operating on land that is seasonally snow free.  The features associated with these environments are classified according to the scale of the landform: micro (patterned ground), meso (blanket-first order landforms such as block fields) and macroforms (larger landscape features such as hillslopes).  Utilizing empirical evidence linked to the identification of these landforms the authors reveal that an extreme climatic separation existed between the northern and southern boundaries of the Appalachian Polar Front. However, this article also addresses the uncertainty of how these landforms actually develop and stress the need to conduct research that explore the extensive range of variables that control or influence the formation of these features, such as landscape rejuvenation.  In closing, the authors recognize that a fundamental understanding of the processes that govern the development of these landscapes will aid in the identification of other types of periglacial landforms and further the knowledge of the processes influencing the evolution of the Appalachian landscape.

 

Trimble, S. W., 1983, A sediment budget for Coon Creek basin in the Driftless Area, Wisconsin, 1853-1977: American Journal of Science, v. 283, p. 454-474.

 

Trimble studies a sediment budget for the Coon Creek basin in the Driftless Area of southwestern Wisconsin. Unlike most sediment budget studies that focus on either sediment production or sediment yield, Trimble’s study emphasizes the consideration of sediment storage in determining a sediment budget. Trimble compares three approaches for quantifying sediment budgets in the basin. Results indicate that sediment yield is limited by a stream’s maximum sediment-transport capacity. When upslope sediment production exceeds this capacity, excess sediment is stored along the valley floor. Conversely, when sediment production falls below a stream’s sediment transport capacity, sediment can be released from storage and made available for transport within or out of the system. In the Coon Creek basin, increased sediment production following European settlement of the region resulted in rapid vertical flood plain accretion; during this time sediment yield remained relatively constant. After soil erosion control measures were implemented in the basin in 1934, sediment production was limited to that stored in the tributaries and upper main valley section.

 

Hooke, R. L., 1999, Spatial distribution of human geomorphic activity in the United States: Comparison with rivers: Earth Surface Processes and Landforms, v.24, p. 687-692.

 

In this article Hooke compares the amount of geomorphic activity done between humans and rivers. Until this publication, it had generally been assumed in the geologic community that anthropogenic activities accounted for a relatively small amount of the overall geomorphic activity presently occurring. The most dominant force shaping our environment was thought to be rivers. To compare these two forces, Hooke has attempted to quantify the mass of earth moved by both, in one degree latitude and longitude grid cells for the entire United States. While the study is highly generalized and neglects serious anthropogenic inputs, it does produce a realistic picture placing anthropogenic activities far beyond those of rivers. The map of anthropogenic activity shows expected peaks with population density, the intensive agriculture of the Midwest, and the highest peak centered in West Virginia due to coal mining. The map of river activity for comparison shows peaks centered in the west, reflecting the extreme relief and sparse vegetation.

 

 

Debris Flows and Hyperconcentrated Flows

 

Hungr, O., Evans, S.G., Bovis, M.J., Hutchinson, J.N., 2001, A Review of the Classification of Landslides of the Flow Type: Environmental & Engineering Geoscience, v. VII, no. 3, p. 221-238.

 

The authors of this study use this article as a platform to launch a new classification of landslides based upon flow type that expand upon the widely used Varnes and Hutcchinson (1968, 1988) system.  The Hungr et.al.  classification system functions on lessening the ambiguity found in other classifications and creating a typological system more conducive to landslide identification; as in the introduction of a new division of landslide material based on genetic and morphological aspects opposed to simply grain size.  For instance, the Varnes (1978) classification system distinguishes between earth and debris material based upon the percentage of grain content coarseness, while Hungr differentiates between materials based upon the origin of the geomorphic process in which it was created.  This study simply attempts to redefine the name boundaries that exist between classification systems and create a systematic checklist that correlates with previous North American classification systems that establish landslide identification based upon: material type, water content, presence of excess pore-pressure or liquefaction at the source of the landslide, channelization, deposition area, velocity, and peak discharge of the event.

 

Cenderelli, D.A., and  Kite, J.S., 1998, Geomorphic effects of large debris flows on channel morphology at North Fork Mountain, eastern West Virginia, USA: Earth Surface Processes and Landforms, vol.23, p. 1-19.

 

Cenderelli studied four debris flow impacted areas from two separate debris flows in 1949 and 1985, all within the same watershed on North Fork Mountain in West Virginia.  A comprehensive study of the debris tracks and surrounding areas allowed for the quantification of material that was moved during the flow events as well as a distinction between four separate sections within the flow track.  Cenderelli studied the areas through the use of aerial photos, topographic maps, and field study of the affected areas, which were then mapped with erosion, depositional features and sediments.  Cenderelli broke the affected debris flow areas into four sections: failure zone, transport/erosion zone, deposition zone, and sediment-laden floodwater zone.  Each zone was described in regards to size and variation.  Also, within each zone the amount of sediment eroded and deposited was quantified and recorded.

 

Campbell, R. H., Varnes, D. J., Fleming, R. W., Hampton, M. A., Prior, D. B., Sangrey, D. A., Nichols, D. R., and Brabb, E. E., 1985, Landslide classification for identification of mud flows and other landslides, in Campbell, R.H., ed., Feasibility of a nationwide program for the identification and delineation of hazards from mud flows and other landslides: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 85-276, p. A1-A24.

 

This paper is the result of a joint study, between the U. S. Geological Survey (USGS) and the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), to evaluate the technical and economic feasibilities of a nationwide landslide hazard identification program. It is the first of four chapters in a preliminary report prepared by the USGS and FEMA. The authors recommend the adoption of D.J. Varnes’ (1978) slope movement classification system to standardize landslide nomenclature for FEMA programs. In accordance with the recommended classification system, the authors present lists of representative landslide terms categorized by: transport mechanisms, location and geometry, materials, moisture content, and scar and deposit characteristics. The authors also present lists of identifying characteristics, damaging forces and effects, and common triggers of landslide events.


Morgan, B. A., Eaton, L. S., and Wieczorek, G. F., 2004, Pleistocene And Holocene Colluvial Fans And Terraces In The Blue Ridge Region of Shenandoah National Park, Virginia: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 03-410 (online), 10/28/2004, http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2003/of03-410/ , 25p.

Online Linkage: http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2003/of03-410/

 

This paper analyzes quaternary age colluvial and alluvial deposits in the Blue Ridge region of Shenendoah national park to help establish the “history of the Pleistocene and Holocene landscape development of the Blue Ridge.” The main purpose of this analysis was to illustrate the “relationship between physiography, bedrock, and principal surficial deposits.”

 

Fluvial Processes

 

Knighton, D., 1998, Fluvial Forms & Processes:  A new perspective: New York, Oxford University Press, Inc., 383 p.

 

Chapter 4 - Fluvial Processes (p. 96-150)

This chapter of Knighton’s Fluvial Forms and Processes covers how the structures of natural rivers are shaped by the competing forces of flowing water and channel resistance. Both of these forces and the environmental factors that affect them, make up the interactions of the fluvial processes. These dynamic processes are the substance of the chapter’s four sections: mechanics of flow, thresholds of erosion, sediment transport, and sediment deposition.

  1. The first section discusses how the velocity (i.e. energy) of water is controlled by the shape and frictional forces of the channel.
  2. The second section discusses the physical properties of sediment in the channel, and the flow conditions needed to move that sediment.
  3. The third section discusses how the three components of the sediment load are transported through the fluvial system. These components are: the dissolved load, wash load, and bed-material load.
  4. The fourth section discusses the different types of river deposits and how they are formed by lateral and vertical accretion. These structures are: transitory channel deposits, alluvial bars, channel fills, lateral deposits, vertical accretion deposits, splays, alluvial fans, and deltas.

 

Adjustment of Channel form

 

Knighton, D., 1998, Fluvial Forms & Processes:  A new perspective: New York, Oxford University Press, Inc., 383 p.

 

Chapter 5 – Channel Adjustment

The morphology (channel form) of any given reach of a river is a function of factors including available bedload, surrounding geology, climate, topography, flow rates, flood regime and erosion and deposition.  Chapter five discusses each of these aspects in detail as they relate to channel form.  Discussions range from low gradient high meander channels to high gradient braided channels and step-pool sequences.  Within all topics channel form and its subsequent geometry and potential behavior or geologically short (a few months to a year) to long (millennia) time lines are explored.  In short, chapter 5 delves into the “pattern” of channels and how those patterns of pool and riffle, step and pool, and other river forms are created and maintained as a result of the flow which courses through them. 

 

 

Stream Classification

 

Rosgen, D. L., 1994, A classification of natural rivers: Wildland Hydrology, v. 22, p. 169-199.

 

Rosgen communicates within this journal article the hierarchical procedures needed to assess and classify the morphologic characteristics of streams. He uses the "decision tree" methodology as a means to understand the underlying complexities that result in differential physical appearances and character of streams due to fluvial modification to flow and sediment supply.  The end result of utilizing this methodology will allow  researchers to some extent: predict a river's behavior from its appearance; develop specific hydraulic and sediment relations for a given morphological channel type and state; provide a mechanism to extrapolate site specific data collected on a given stream reach to those of similar character and provide a consistent and reproducible frame of reference of communication for those working with river systems in a variety of professional disciplines.  This methodology caters to those within the applied fluvial geomorphology sectors that do not have formal academic training in the field but are required to understand, conduct and direct stream alteration or restoration projects.

 

Montgomery, D. R. & J. M. Buffington.  1998.  Channel Processes, classification and response.  In R. Naiman & R. Bilby (Ed.) River Ecology and Management  (13-40).  Springer-Verlag:  New York Inc.  

This chapter addresses three basic fluvial geomorphology concepts.  First, it reviews physical processes and their impact on streams during channel formation, maintenance and alteration.  Next, the chapter reviews previous channel categorizations, identifying both strengths and weaknesses therein. Finally, the authors propose their own hierarchical system for classification of forested mountain streams, the specifics of which they feel were largely neglected in previous categorizations.  Montgomery and Buffington’s system weights different factors influencing channel properties, encompassing a wide range of spatial and temporal scales.  The authors acknowledge that no system, including their own, is perfect or as capable of classifying any given stream as an intelligent and trained first hand observer would be onsite; however, classification does provide reference, local/historical context, and may bring general ideas about linkage and processes to attention. 

 

Kite, J. S., 2003, Fluvial geomorphology train is leaving the station; shouldn't we be on board?: Stream Notes, October 2003, p. 6-7.

 

The field of natural stream design is growing rapidly due to the advent of Dave Rosgen’s classification of natural rivers and subsequent classes.  The academic community is currently not accepting of this because most practitioners going through Rosgen’s classes have little knowledge of fluvial process.  Very little emphasis and focus is applied to these topics at universities and academically trained fluvial geomorphologists are ill-prepared upon entering the field.  The academic community must recognize the growing field of stream restoration before non-geomorphologists take over the applied aspects of fluvial geomorphology.  As academics, we should recognize the positive aspects of Rosgen’s system and attempt to refine the negative aspects.  If the academic community continues to ignore the growing field of natural stream design, a chasm between restoration practitioners and academics will grow and we will lose control of applied fluvial geomorphology.  

 

Knighton, D., 1998, Fluvial Forms & Processes:  A new perspective: New York, Oxford University Press, Inc., 383 p.

 

Chapter 6 – Channel Changes Through Time (p. 261-335)

To discuss the topic of channel changes through time the chapter is broken up into six sections: evidence of change, causes of change, philosophies of change, the effects of floods, fluvial response to climatic change, and channel change and human activity. The later of which, human activity is ever increasingly becoming more pronounced, surpassing any effects from climate change in the past 2000 years. This is important in the fluvial setting because channels are the most sensitive part of the landscape and respond rapidly to disturbances in their equilibrium. Since channels are created through the concentrated energy of the hydrologic cycle, it makes perfect sense that changes on the landscape will be concentrated in the channels. If we want to manage the fluvial environment, Knighton stresses that we must understand the fluvial processes involved so that we can predict the course of channel adjustment. Which he recognizes is no easy task given the complexity of the fluvial system, and is reflected by the length of the chapter.

 

Reusser, L. J., Bierman, P.R., Pavich, M. J., Zen, E., Larsen, J., and Finkel, R., 2004, Rapid Late Pleistocene Incision of Atlantic Passive-Margin River Gorges: Science, v. 305, p. 499-502.

 

This article presents a summary of a study which compares the rate and timing of incision along two Atlantic passive margin rivers.  A series of 10-beryllium (10Be) samples were recovered from bedrock surfaces in Holtwood Gorge, the largest in a series of bedrock gorges in the Piedmont uplands of the glaciated Susquehanna River Basin, and in Mather Gorge in the Piedmont section of the unglaciated Potomac River Basin.  The 10Be ages indicate that both gorges were formed during a period of rapid incision in the late Pleistocene.  The similarities between rates and timing of incision along both rivers suggest that the episode of rapid downcutting was initiated and maintained by a variety of primary and secondary effects of Pleistocene climate change.  Comparisons are presented which show that the period of rapid incision coincides with a period of sea-level drop and with a period of increased storminess and colder temperatures as inferred by results from the Greenland Ice Sheet Project 2 (GISP2).  These coincidences indicate that the period of rapid incision may have, at least partially, been driven by global base level lowering and increased high-magnitude floods.  The geomorphic effects of the glacial forebulge is considered to have potentially had an influence on the period of rapid incision, but the timing and extent of uplift resulting from the glacial forebulge is not clearly understood and cannot be used to entirely explain the incision of the gorges.  Results from the study suggest that the creation of the Holtwood Gorge cannot be solely attributed to glacial meltwater in the Susquehanna Basin as was previously hypothesized. 

 

Bierman, P. et al., 1997, Postglacial Ponds and Alluvial Fans: recorders of Holocene Landscape History: GSA Today, v. 7, p. 1-8.

Online Link: ftp://rock.geosociety.org/pub/GSAToday/gt9710.pdf

 

Bierman et al. looked at alluvial fans and ponds in Vermont to study the changes in erosion rates and depositional rates during the Holocene.  The research team trenched 23 alluvial fans which were are stream flow and not debris flow derived.  All but one alluvial fan was grass covered and showed little recent activity; which led the researchers to consider the fans a closed system.  Alluvial fans could be dated directly due to the large quantity of organic material embedded with in the fan matrix.  Two fans show aggradation during the early Holocene, two showed aggradation during the late Holocene, and one showed aggradation during historical time.  Two ponds were also analyzed for sediment influxes.  Cores were taken in Sterling Pond, which was dominantly spring fed, and in Ritterbush Pond, which showed both organic and inorganic sediments which can be differentiated by their δ 13C signatures.  Sterling Pond showed no appreciable differences throughout the core, which was attributed to the inability to generate runoff into the pond.  Ritterbush showed significant differences yielding five intervals of terrestrial (inorganic) input; the intervals were dated using 14C dating.  The comparison between the cores and the alluvial fans yielded a similar history, leading the research team to believe a large scale change such as climate was the control.  By using previously proposed climate models, Bierman et al. were able to show the climate changes proposed represent the changes in sediment input.  During the early Holocene the climate was warmer, drier, and stormier than today giving way to the increased amount of terrestrial input during the stormy events.  The middle Holocene was a fairly stable period in which there was development of soils on the alluvial fans, which are buried beneath younger sediments.  About 25,000 14C years ago a shift to a significantly cooler and moister climate occurred which led to another increase in sediment deposition on alluvial fans and an influx of terrestrial sediment input in the cores.  These sediment traps record times of high intensity and long duration stormy periods as well as poor land practices; which was shown by an increase in sediment during the post settlement period, and was highlighted by extensive deforestation and poor agricultural practices.  This paper gives a record of the Holocene hill slope erosional rates and depositional rates with in sediment traps or storage areas.

 

Paleohydrology: Paleoflood Hydrology

 

Jarrett, R. D., and Tomlinson, E. M., 2000, Regional interdisciplinary paleoflood approach to assess extreme flood potential: Water Resources Research, v. 36, no. 10, p. 2957-2984.

 

Floods are common hydrologic occurrences that have an increasing influence upon modern society.  Accurately estimating flood frequency/magnitude relationships is important in determining how often large floods will occur.  Short term gage data is insufficient in predicting the frequency/magnitude relationships of most climatic regions.  Paleoflood data is an important source of information that can better explain extreme hydrologic events.  The combination of gage data and paleoflood data can better extend current frequency/magnitude relationships, and thus, better predict the occurrence of extreme floods.  The focus for this study was to determine if the probable maximum precipitation (PMP) event would overtop Elkhead Dam in Colorado.  The authors used a number of methods to determine paleoflood discharges for maximum floods and paleoflood length.  Envelope curves of maximum rainfall were calculated from the collected data and used to determine the PMP for Elkead Creek basin.  According to the authors, the PMP for Elkhead Creek would not overtop the Elkhead Dam and repairs were deemed unnecessary. 

 

Costa, J.E., 1983, Paleohydraulic reconstruction of flash-flood peaks from boulder deposits in the Colorado Front Range: Geological Society of America Bulletin, vol. 94, p. 986-1004.

 

Past flow conditions are of great interest to many geologists, but reconstructing the conditions has been somewhat troublesome to determine.  Costa used eight small watersheds within the Front Range of Colorado to create a new methodology for paleohydraulic reconstruction; all watersheds had like characteristics in bedrock type, slope, relative smoothness, and amount of alluvium or colluvium present for erosion during events.  The author used an average of the five largest boulders in each watershed to determine the competence of the streams during peak flow.  Costa used two theoretical methods (Helley’s 1969 model, and fluid drag and lift vs. gravitational friction model) and two empirical methods (least fit squares regression, and rip-rap stability and limiting size) to determine velocity.  The four methods were averaged and it was determined that was the best approximation.  He also used four methods for determining depth: Manning equation rearranged for average depth, an equation derived from unit stream power, shield’s function, and relative smoothness relationship.  Costa gave guidelines for determining cross-sections in discharge calculations.  The author found this method yielded much better results than previously used first approximation approaches; also that for particles over two meters the method did not work as well leading to overestimation.  Costa tested the method on the two streams with evidence of large flash floods: Rabbit Gulch tributary, and Boulder Creek.  The author found that paleovelocity and paleodepth can be approximated by using boulder size; while discharge can be determined by using boulder size and cross-sections.

 

Eaton, L.S., Morgan, B.A., Kochel, R.C., and Howard, A.D., 2003, Quaternary deposits and landscape evolution of the central Blue Ridge of Virginia: Geomorphology, vol. 56, p. 139-154.

 

A storm in June of 1995 exposed many early deposits through stream incision.  Eaton et al. looked at some newly exposed quaternary deposits in the Blue Ridge of Virginia to determine landscape evolution and climate data.  The oldest landforms were determined to be straths; up to four are present in any given locale.  These dated to the Pleistocene and late Tertiary, predating the Wisconsinan glaciation.  The authors found that late Pleistocene deposits showed high mechanical weathering and widespread periglacial activity, shown by the presence of blockfields and boulder streams in most of the 0 to 2nd order streams.  Stratified slope deposits were seen throughout the study area, and dated discovering they bracket the Wisconsinan glaciation.  Bedding rates of these deposits show amount of vegetation and climate conditions present during deposition.  Debris fans and flows are present throughout much of the area, some of which can exceed 30m in thickness, and 50,000 years of age.  The authors found that the relative recurrence interval for debris flows is between 3000-4000 years, and at least 5 events have occurred since 6520 YBP.  Eaton et al. found that the studied deposits show the history of the region from the present to predating the Wisconsinan glaciation.  They found that many of the landforms in the region are “relics” of colder climates; and colder climates yielded high sediment loads and debris flows, while warmer climates were more stable with erosive events occurring less frequently. 

 

Baker, V.R.  2002, The study of superfloods:  Science, v. 295, no. 5564, p.2379-2380.

 

Baker’s article provides a brief history of the study of superfloods, including the history of its scientific study, controversy associated with the subject, current beliefs, and application of superflood knowledge.  The concept of superfloods has had a troubled route to finding acceptance in the geologic community, and, even in the recent past the validity of studies and methods for identifying ancient superfloods has been questioned.  Studies within the last 40 years have indicated that superfloods were associated with massive ice dam failures and overflow lakes caused by glacial movement; these studies conclude that there is evidence of many superfloods in the Pacific Ocean and various river basins, including the Colombia.  Baker indicates that the study of superfloods is still in its infancy; many discoveries are yet to be made, including applications like superflood connections with other planets.

 

Hirschboeck, K.K., 1989, Climate and Floods: National Water Summary 1988-1989 Floods and Droughts: Hydrology, p. 67-88.

 

In this paper Hirschboeck reviews the affect of climate on flood generating precipitation events in the United States. Hirschboeck states that to truly understand the occurrence of floods, they need to be thought of in the context of climate. Many different meteorological processes play into the role of determining flood generating precipitation events, such as: available atmospheric moisture, seasonal weather patterns, topographic effects, and antecedent land-surface conditions. The diverse range of these processes acting across the United States is controlled by climatic changes on the global scale.

 

Slackwater-Deposits & Step-Backwater Methods

 

Kite, J. S., Gebhardt T. W., and Springer, G. S., 2002, Slackwater deposits as paleostage indicators in canyon reaches of the Central Appalachians: reevaluation after the 1996 Cheat River flood: in House, P. K., Webb, R.H., Baker, V.R., and Levish, D.R., eds., Ancient Floods, Modern Hazards: Principles and Applications of Paleoflood Hydrology: American Geophysical Union Water Science and Application Series, v. 5, p. 257-266.

 

Slackwater deposits were examined to determine their effectiveness as paleostage indicators for large floods on Cheat River.  Cheat Narrows and Cheat Canyon were chose as sites to access flood derived slackwater deposits because of their consistent hydraulic geometries.  Slackwater deposits from Cheat River floods from 1985 and 1996 were examined.  The 1985 flood had a recurrence interval of greater than 500 years and the 1996 flood was determined to be the 100 year event.  Results show that the 1996 slackwater deposits better indicated flood height than the 1985 slackwater deposits.  The authors concluded that slackwater deposits better correlate with moderate magnitude flooding events.  Moderate magnitude floods deposit slackwater sediments on relatively flat surfaces nearer the floodplain, in comparison to larger floods depositing sediments on steeper slopes further upgradient.  Accordingly, slackwater sediments are preserved for longer periods of time on the flatter surfaces and better indicate paleoflood stage. 

 

Springer, G. S., 2002, Caves and their potential use in paleoflood studies, this volume, in House, P. K., Webb, R.H., Baker, V.R., and Levish,  D.R., editors, Ancient Floods, Modern Hazards: Principles and Applications of Paleoflood Hydrology, American Geophysical Union Water Science and Application Series Volume 5, p. 329-343.

 

Within this article Springer examines the potential use of caves as a repository for geomorphic evidence of flood events.  He identifies fluviokarst features, such as floodwater injection caves, as being the primary sources where geomorphic evidence can be preserved and therefore used as a dating mechanism for flood events.  Utilizing studies conducted in the Greenbrier and Cheat River systems of West Virginia he attempted to discern the preservation potential of multiple fluvial deposits within these caves.  Springer determined that although these caves showed a marked decrease in mechanical erosion from scouring, many of the deposits were rapidly decaying due to biogenic activity.

 

Springer, G. S., Kite, J. S., 1997, River-derived slackwater sediments in caves along Cheat River, West Virginia: Geomorphology, v.18, p. 91-100.

 

Springer and Kite studied overbank, slackwater deposits in caves within the Cheat River canyon in West Virginia.  They identified poorly preserved slackwater sediments from the November 1985 flood in several caves, and found that the best indicators of peak discharge for this flood are small styrofoam balls that cling to the cave walls and ceilings.  Though overbank, slackwater sediments lie within 1 meter of the high water marks and are good indicators of peak discharge, they tend to be ephemeral due to cave environments that do not support preservation.  Sediments in one cave that does support preservation are inferred to be more than 400,000 years old and are considered to be unrelated to the modern Cheat River.

 

Springer, Greg S., Kite, J. Steven, and Victor A. Schmidt, 1997, Cave sedimentation, genesis, and erosional history in the Cheat River Canyon, West Virginia: Geological Society of America Bull. v. 109, no. 5, p. 524-532.  

 

Using cave sedimentation and genesis (creation) Springer et al. were able to show a 56.0 to 63.2 mm/k.y. incision rate in a study area on Cheat River, West Virginia. Single conduit caves were shown to be imprecise indicators of previous base level positions. Maze caves indicated varying margins of error when comparing base level to sedimentation in three distinct classes of facies. Vadose, phreatic and residuum facies sedimentation differences between base level helped create a margin of error for predicting incisions rates in Cheat River.  Margin of error creation using magnetostratigraphy constrained incision rate predictions and may be a more accurate tool for future incision rate calculations.

 

Human Impacts on Streams

 

Jacobson, R. B., and Coleman, D. J., 1986, Stratigraphy and recent floodplain evolution of Maryland Piedmont flood plains: American Journal of Science, v. 286, p. 617-637.

Jacobson and Coleman present the findings of a study of the stratigraphy and sedimentology along nine reaches of seven streams in the Maryland Piedmont.  Data recovered from cutbank exposures and sediment cores indicate the presence of three distinct stratigraphic units across the drainage areas.  Stratigraphic evidence provides a record of stream response to changes in sediment supply and hydrology.  The strata identified in this study are attributed to three temporal periods (pre-1730, 1730-1930, and post-1930) of changing hydrology and sediment supply caused by changes in land use practices in the region. 

 

Knox, J.C., 1777, Human Impacts on Wisconsin Stream Channels: Association of American Geographers, vol.67, no.3, p. 323-342.

 

In this paper Knox discusses the impact human settlement has had on the stream morphology of the Platte watershed in southwestern Wisconsin. Since settlement began in the 1830s, the original character of the landscape has changed from a countryside dominated by prairie and forest to fields and pastures. This change in landcover Knox attributes to the watershed’s increase in stream sedimentation, and flood frequency and magnitude; with these effects being expressed more strongly in the headwater tributaries and moderately further downstream. In the headwater tributaries these changes have led to wider channels than during presettlement conditions, and the downstream main channel is narrower and deeper. While Knox recognizes the significant contribution climatic change can have on stream morphology, he believes the small amount of climatic variation that has occurred since 1830 would not have had such a pronounced affect on natural vegetation. Thus it is possible that the watershed’s change in landcover has made the watershed more sensitive to small scale climatic variations. 

 

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